This finding is seemingly XAV939 Wnt/beta-catenin inhibitor somewhat different than the findings from the Greenberg group, but they performed their experiments using subjects without recent flu-like symptoms rather than a population that received vaccination. In this case, their NK cell IFN-�� responses would likely be BYL719 in vivo similar to our unvaccinated controls due to being outside of the 2 to 3 month window after vaccination when these memory NK cell recall responses were the strongest. In fact, they also found that the IL-2�Cneutralizing Ab only partially blocked IFN-�� production by NK cells, perhaps suggesting that other molecules like NKp46 might also be involved in the IFN-�� response of NK cells. Regarding the role of NKp46 in the NK cell IFN-�� response, we found here that adding anti- NKp46 partially decreased the NK cell response in whole PBMC cultures as well as from purified NK cells, which is in contrast to the results observed using the IL-12�Cneutralizing antibody. However, because this experiment most likely blocked surface, but not internal, NKp46, there were certain limitations to the interpretation of our results. Our results most likely suggest the importance of NKp46 binding to the virus during the recall response. We speculate that perhaps some surface NKp46 expression is required to initiate signals after HA interaction via the ITAMs on the NKp46-associated FcRs that lead to IFN-�� production, and intracellular NKp46 then acts to amplify these signals; this potential mechanism involving the intracellular NKp46 in memory function remains to be further investigated in future studies. A recent study demonstrated that the costimulatory molecule DNAM-1 is dynamically regulated on Ly49H+ NK cells and required for differentiation of memory NK cells during MCMV infection. Further investigation into the roles of costimulatory molecules like CD226 and costimulatory cytokine signaling as well as the mechanism underlying IFN-�� production will be important for understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying the generation of memory NK cells, providing potential insights into the biology of human NK cells for vaccine development and NK cell��relevant diseases. Ecologists have sought to understand the processes and mechanisms of succession for well over a century with a focus on the way in which individual species can shape community composition through time. Early-colonizing species can have disproportionate influence on subsequent community succession due to founder effects, their ability to capitalize on available resources, or their positive responses to disturbance. Invasive plant species in particular are often uniquely positioned to influence succession because many are well-adapted to the disturbed conditions which initiate succession. In some cases, their high abundance or life-history strategies can also make them ecosystem engineers, capable of transforming habitats and having long lasting effects after they are gone, especially if they are capable of changing the disturbance regime themselves.