Thus, elevated expressions of the transcripts belonging to the photosynthesis in “off” year in relation to the “on” year were observed for citrus. Besides, the photosynthesis was inhibited by the bud morphology in the “on” year, whereas “off” year leaves were filled with photoassimilates. In fact, it has been proposed that its induction in “off” citrus buds provides a leaf signal indicating the available nutrition richness. Similarly, the pistachio trees accumulated more carbohydrate during “off” years in relation to the “on” ones. Thus, Goldschmidt supported the regulatory role of the photoassimilate availability for the flowering induction. The comparison between the mature bearing and 
non-bearing leaves also showed that the ion transport- and homeostasis-related transcripts were more expressed in the non-bearing leaves than in the bearing ones. The KEGG analyses of those up-regulated transcript in the non-bearing leaves indicated that they were mainly involved in the lipid and amino acid metabolism, xenobiotic biodegradation and metabolism, biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, and carbohydrate and energy metabolism. Interestingly, the xenobiotic biodegradation and metabolism participates in the defense mechanisms. Indeed, a relationship between the carbohydrate nutritional status and the responses to the xenobiotics has been found in Arabidopsis thaliana, showing that the presence of sugars triggered the defense mechanisms. On the other hand, the flavonoids controlling the aroma and flavor are secondary metabolites, being synthesized in response to an excess of photoassimilation. The expression level of the transcripts related with flavonoid biosynthesis were increased in the “off” year leaves in relation to the “on” year ones in the olive tree. A similar gene expression pattern was observed with citrus buds, being based on flavonoids acting as a reservoir for the photoassimilation surplus. Taking account the higher expression of transcripts related to the oxidation-reduction, carbohydrate metabolism and mineral transport, together with flavonoid biosynthesis in “off” year leaves, we conclude that the nutritional status may be the principal key controlling the alternate bearing in the olive tree. Supporting the present work, a wide range of the genes targeted by the olive tree miRNA were found to be mainly involved in the carbohydrate metabolic pathways. Despite providing no selective advantage to the host, the plasmid is faithfully maintained at,60 copies per cell. The 2 mm plasmid achieves this by encoding copy-number amplification and partitioning systems, and by borrowing host cell machinery for its replication and segregation. Retention of the 2 mm plasmid at normal copy number is also dependent on the host cell process of sumoylation, the post-translational modification of target proteins with the small Orbifloxacin ubiquitin-related modifier protein SUMO. Sumoylation is an essential conserved eukaryotic function known to regulate diverse cellular processes by modulating the interactions, localization, or post-translational stability of substrate proteins. Like ubiquitin, SUMO must be activated in a series of enzyme-catalyzed steps Tulathromycin B before being conjugated to target proteins by the E2 conjugating enzyme Ubc9. Some target proteins require an E3 ligase for recruitment to Ubc9.